The capture of Vimy Ridge

The capture of Vimy Ridge, an important position in northern France, is one of the most important battles in the history of Canada. It was hailed by our allies as the most successful attack of the war. This victory suddenly made the great powers of the time take notice of the young Canada. Vimy Ridge is approximately 14km long and overlooks the Doulai Plain in northern France. It is located about 12km to the northeast from Arras. The Germans seized it during their advance in September of 1914. They immediately realised its potential and fortified it. The Germans built elaborate trenches and tunnels connecting deep underground caves. Ammunition was stockpiled, and a railroad was built to ensure continuous supply. Behind the ridge, the Germans built a large number of factories that were crucial to war production. The Hindenburg Line also hinged on this strategic ridge. Seeing that Vimy Ridge allowed the Germans to observe Allied movements for a great deal off the French and British resolved to mount a counter-attack aimed at retaking the ridge. The attempt was a total disaster. French and British troops were cut down as they tried to cross the open land between them and the ridge. The final toll for the attack was 150,000 dead. Following the attack, the predominant view among Allied commanders was that the ridge was impregnable. This view was wrong. In the winter of 1916 The Canadian Corps moved into the Arras sector, replacing the British. Also, in 1916 Robert Nivelle became the Commander-in-Chief of all forces on the Western Front. He immediately began planning what was to become known as the Nivelle Offensive. One of the key components of this offensive was the capture of Vimy Ridge. This task was allocated to the four Canadian corps, fighting together for the first time. Unlike previous assaults on Vimy Ridge the Canadians took the time to prepare. Replicas of the Vimy Ridge and the surrounding terrain allowed units to practice the attack and see what other units beside them would be doing. Canadian artillery spotters under the direction of Andrew McNaughton were able to identify the positions of around 80% of the German guns on Vimy Ridge. By the time the assault was to begin over 70% of these guns had been destroyed. One of the reasons Haig's attack at the Somme had failed so miserably the year before was the belief that barbed wire could be cut using shrapnel. This was a mistaken belief that cost the British dearly. To destroy the barbed wire covering German positions the Canadians developed a new fuse that allowed the shells to burst on contact, and thus destroy the wire. Finally, tunnels were dug towards Vimy so that Canadians would not have to advance across much open ground in front of the ridge. In the evening of April 8th, 1917, some 20,000 Canadians travelled towards their jumping-off points. At 5:30 on April 9th the assault began with close to 3,000 Allied guns opening fire. After a short barrage the Canadians went over the top and proceeded towards the ridge with a creeping barrage covering their advance. The Germans were completely overwhelmed as the four Canadian divisions surged over the ridge. The Canadians quickly captured the large tunnels and trench systems. Although casualties were heavy the Canadians seized nearly all of their objectives. By the end of the day it was clear that the Canadians more or less had control of Vimy. However, it wasn't until April 12th that all the pillboxes and isolated groups of Germans had been eliminated. In a few days the Canadians achieved the biggest Commonwealth success on the Western Front. It did not come without great cost. The Canadians suffered 10,602 casualties during the assault and the mopping up. However, the most important position on the Western Front had been taken. Unfortunately, the Allies failed to capitalize on the success and the Germans were able to dig in away from the ridge. No breakout from the trenches occurred. The land around Vimy Ridge was later given to Canada by the French government. Today, it's is a popular tourist destination and a symbol of Canada's sacrifice during the First World War.

THE OKA CRISIS

THE OKA CRISIS

After fighting for years to reclaim their native land, the Mohawks of Kanesatake (Oka) erected a barricade to their land.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT
While Quebec was looking into the idea of holding a new referendum on sovereignty, other nations, such as the Canadian First Nations, were attempting to gain their own recognition as an independent people within Canada. While Natives had been making claims for centuries, the ones put forth at Oka took a turn that left its mark on Canadian history.

SUMMARY
When confronted with a plan to expand a golf course on their land, the Mohawks on the Kanesatake reserve decided to erect a barricade to Oka. Indeed, the land which the mayor of Oka and other citizens of the city were eyeing for the new golf course was being claimed as long-held ancestral land by the Mohawks. Three months later, on July 11, 1990, the police intervened and attacked the barricade being guarded by the Natives. Shots were fired and Marcel Lemay, an agent with the Sûreté du Québec (provincial police force), was killed. The conflict took on an entirely new perspective from that moment on. The Mohawk claims were no longer strictly territorial in nature, but rather a demand for recognition of Native independence. The Warriors then joined the Mohawks at the barricades. The government refused to negotiate while the Mohawk barricades were up and sent in the provincial police (Sûreté du Québec) to erect its own barricades on the roads leading to the municipality of Oka and the Kanesatake reserve. As neither group was willing to dismantle their barricades, Robert Bourassa called in the Canadian Armed Forces. Despite the armed presence, negotiations were slow, and it took several weeks before the Mercier Bridge and highways 132, 138 and 207 were able to reopen to regular traffic. Twenty days later, on September 26, 1990, the last barricades were taken down and the Warriors gave up the fight.

Cold War

Cold War refers to the intense rivalry that developed after World War II (1939-1945) between groups of Communist led by Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), and non-Communist nations led by USA. It is called cold war because though it involved intense power struggle, as exists in war, but no physical fighting took place. The cold war happened because of the attempts of the USSR to forcibly extend communist rule to other countries. This was opposed by the USA and its allies on grounds of ideological opposition to communism as well as fear of dominance of the world by USSR.

The cold war tension started immediately after end of World War II with USSR acting against some of the agreements reached between the allied countries regarding treatment of Germany and other countries in Eastern Europe freed from German control. At the Yalta conference held in 1945. the USA, UK and the USSR leaders had agreed to hold democratic elections in the liberated countries. However, Stalin refused to honour these commitment after the end of war. He cut off nearly all contacts between the West and the territories it controlled in Eastern Europe, and began to take action to install communist Governments there. As a result, by 1948, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Albania, and Yugoslavia all had Communist governments. In response USA decided to actively oppose spread of communism. USA adopted a policy in March 1947 to help any free nation resist Communist attack.

In 1949 the Countries on side of USA formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to Oppose USSR. Similarly in1949, the USSR set up the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to unite the Communist-ruled states.

The two warring groups also had differences over question of developing and stocking nuclear weapons. They engaged in kind of a race to develop nuclear and other military capabilities. There was similar race in the field of space exploration also. All this further increased the mutual distrust and fear between the two warring groups.

The victory of communists in China in 1949 further added to the fear of communism among USA and its allies. Though there were no direct wars between USA and USSR, there were wars in different countries supported by the opposing groups of the cold war. This includes wars in countries Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan.

However, by about 1970's the futility of the the Cold war was becoming clearer to both the sides. Also there were some disunity within each group. A a result some initiatives for reducing the cold war tension were taken. As a result the agreement over status of Berlin was reached in 1972 and Germany joined the United Nations in 1973. A Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) agreement was reached between the USA and the USSR was reached in 1972. China and the USA established diplomatic relations in 1979. We can say the cold war finally came to an end in 1991 with the Soviet Communist party loosing control of the Soviet government and the USSR breaking up into a number of independent, non-Communist states.

Benito Mussolini

Known as "Il Duce" -- the Leader -- Benito Mussolini was the Fascist dictator of Italy during World War II. Benito Mussolini grew active in Italian politics in the first decade of the 1900s. He then spent time in exile in Switzerland and Austria, where he worked writing and editing socialist newspapers. He returned to Italy after serving as a rifleman in World War I and gained power and notoriety as a revolutionary nationalist. Mussolini founded the Fascist Party in 1919, used force and intimidation against political opponents, and took power in 1922, creating a dictatorship and dissolving Italy's parliament. Despite his heavy-handed tactics, he was popular with the common people for many years as he expanded government services and "made the trains run on time." Bald and blustery, he loved fancy uniforms and liked to strut and posture proudly during public appearances. In the 1930s Italy invaded Ethiopia and Albania and in 1939 Mussolini promised an alliance with Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. But Mussolini's fall was nearly as swift as his rise: Italy's failures in the war led to Mussolini being ousted from power in 1943. He was arrested but then rescued by German troops, after which Hitler set him up as the head of government in Northern Italy. As the war ended in 1945, Mussolini tried to escape to Switzerland but was seized by Italian partisans, who shot him and then strung up his body in Milan for public display. 

Italian Campaign Sicily

It was the end of 1942, Great Britain and USA stopped Afrikakorps, a German expeditionary force from capturing Egypt and Suez Canal.

The Next step was to advance into Sicily, The plan was named Operation Husky. If the allies capture Sicily they would regain control to the Mediterranean seas. Invading Sicily would force Germany to retreat its land and air force to defend its southern side therefore the pressure on the USSR would be alleviated.

Sicily was defended by Italian army that contained  200,000 men as well as 2 German divisions. On the way to Sicily, 58 Canadians were drowned when enemy submarines sank three of their ships. 500 vehicles and a multiple thousands of guns were drowned with the ships.

On July 10th 1943 allies have approached the southern tip of Sicily.

On the night of July 10, the assault began by airborne landings. Canadian troops went near Pachino close to the southern tip of Sicily. They grouped on the left flank of the five British landings that would be 60 kilometres of the shoreline.

Three more flanks were established by the Americans over another 60 kilometres.

The allies wanted to trap the Italian and German forces and prevent them to retreat across the Strait of Messina into Italy.

From the Pachino beaches, where resistance from Italian coastal troops was light, the Canadians pushed forward through choking dust, over tortuous mine-filled roads. At first all went well, but resistance stiffened as the Canadians were engaged increasingly by determined German troops who fought tough delaying actions from the vantage points of towering villages and almost impregnable hill positions. On July 15, just outside the village of Grammichele, Canadian troops came under fire from Germans of the Hermann Goering Division. The village was taken by the men and tanks of the 1st Infantry Brigade and Three Rivers Regiment.

Piazza Armerina and Valguarnera was a successful raid for the Canadians, they were directed to the hill towns of Leonforte and Assoro. Despite the defensive advantages which the mountains gave to the Germans, after a bloody war both places fell to the Canadian assault. Canada to took down the German and Italian forces after 5 days of fighting.  The Canadians had overwhelming artillery and air support.

Meanwhile, the Americans were clearing the western part of the island and the British were pressing up the east coast toward Catania. These operations pushed the Germans into a small area around the base of Mount Etna where Catenanuova and Regalbuto were captured by the Canadians.

The final Canadian task was to break through the main enemy position and capture Adrano. Here, they continued to face not only enemy troops, but also the physical barriers of a rugged, almost trackless country. Mortars, guns, ammunition, and other supplies had to be transported by mule trains. Undaunted, the Canadians advanced steadily against the enemy positions, fighting literally from mountain rock to mountain rock.

With the approaches to Adrano cleared, the way was prepared for the closing of the Sicilian campaign. The Canadians did not take part in this final phase, however, as they were withdrawn into reserve on August 7. Eleven days later, British and American troops entered Messina. Sicily had been conquered in 38 days.

The Canadians had acquitted themselves well in their first campaign. They had fought through 240 kilometres of mountainous country - farther than any other formation in the Eighth British Army. During their final two weeks, they had borne a large share of the fighting on the Allied front. Canadian casualties throughout the fighting totalled 562 killed, 664 wounded and 84 prisoners of war.

BABY BOOMERS

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The number of babies was much greater than in years prior to these wars. It is said that without the economic prosperity and GI Bill of the postwar years the baby boom and economic boom would not have been as large as it was. The prosperity, and GI Bill in addition to the confidence these young men had (after defeating the enemy) created a fertile ground for the creation of many families. 
The baby boom was also very marked in other Allied countries, too - for example, in Britain. 



The baby boom was the result of the end of World War II. Returning soldiers and sailors got married, and started to produce families. This produced a "bulge" in the population curve of most countries which was named "The Baby Boom". The children of post World War II families created challenges to certain government agencies, such as education, health, and social services. 

These children are defined as those born between the years of 1946 to 1964. Some sociologists place the latter date as 1956, a ten year spread, as the boom after World War 2 and the rest of the boom after the Korean War. 

As a Boomer, I remember attending school with class sizes of 36 to 40 children as a normal class size. While we put a strain on the school system, the children of the boom were the most literate and well trained generation as evidenced by the SAT scores of 1967...the highest scores ever made by a "class". 

Technically, a baby boom is a statistical variation "bulge" in the prediction of population growth. The "Baby Boomers" were the first statistical proof of this bulge. It also affected the census counts, government representation in the USA, Canada and the United Kingdom. 


The term "Baby Boom" does not only represents a number in population figures but also the cultural effects caused by the baby boomers themselves. They were responsible for "free living", "Sex, drugs and Rock and Roll", "Hippies" and the changing of social and spiritual mores of all three major places such as the USA, European Nations, and Canada.

Who was Mackenzie King ?

William Lyon Mackenzie King had a long political career. He was leader of the Liberal Party for 29 eventful years through the buoyant expansion of the 1920s, the depression of the 1930s, the shock of World War II, and then the post-war reconstruction, and for 21 of these years he was Canada's prime minister. His decisions during this time contributed significantly to the shaping of Canada and to its development as an influential middle power in world affairs. During his lifetime his achievements were sometimes obscured by a style notable for its compromises. After his death his political career was sometimes overshadowed by the revelation of his unsuspected personal idiosyncrasies. As tensions mounted in Europe during the 1930s, Mackenzie King was one of many people who earnestly hoped that war could be avoided. When it became clear the Munich agreement had failed and war was coming, King's primary concerns were to maintain national unity and to assert Canada's position as an independent country. After Britain declared war on Germany, King announced that the Canadian Parliament would decide on what Canada should do. Parliament was recalled, and, on September 9, gave its approval for entering the war. The next day, September 10, 1939, one week after Britain, Canada declared war on Germany. The Canadian war effort had been very impressive. Canadian armed forces fought valiantly, on land, at sea, and in the air. Canada made an additional contribution in sponsoring the BCATP, and in constructing ships, aircraft and tanks. Mackenzie King deserves much credit for leading the country through this demanding time. In his goals of keeping the country united and asserting Canada's role as an independent nation, he succeeded admirably. It is largely because of his government's record during the war that he is regarded as one of Canada's great prime ministers.

Avro Arrow

When the Cold War intensified in the 1950s, Canada became increasingly concerned with the possibility of a Soviet attack. The Avro Arrow was a twin engine, supersonic interceptor developed in the late 1950's by the Avro Aircraft company of Malton, Ontario, Canada. The Arrow was the follow on to Avro's first military design, the highly succesful CF-100 Canuck, a twin engine all weather interceptor sold to the Royal Canadian Air Force (600+) and to Belgium. To guard against an attack, Canada needed modern supersonic aircraft. The planes in use then were slow and outdated. Since 1949, the government backed the A.V. Roe Company in its project to develop one of the world’s fastest supersonic jets: the Avro Arrow. Canada was also forced to develop the Arrow's engine and fire-control and missile systems, and estimated costs rose to $12.5 million per aircraft. After export efforts again failed, the project was cancelled on 20 February 1959. A.V. Roe bitterly fired 14 000 employees; the government ordered all plans and prototypes destroyed; and many Canadians bemoaned the devastation of Canada's aircraft industry, the resulting flight of scientists and engineers to the US, and Canada's renewed dependence on the US for interceptor aircraft. The huge cost of the Avro Arrow made the government buy an American fighter plane.